international trading
Abolfazl Shahabadi; Farideh Arefkhani; Maryam Aliyari
Abstract
Migration is a global phenomenon that is driven by a variety of reasons, which can be categorized as push and pull factors. Push factors refer to negative circumstances that compel individuals to leave their country of origin and seek a better life elsewhere. In contrast, pull factors are positive conditions ...
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Migration is a global phenomenon that is driven by a variety of reasons, which can be categorized as push and pull factors. Push factors refer to negative circumstances that compel individuals to leave their country of origin and seek a better life elsewhere. In contrast, pull factors are positive conditions that attract individuals to a particular destination. These may include better job opportunities, greater security, better healthcare, and improved educational opportunities. It is important to note that the push and pull factors that influence migration can vary depending on an individual’s characteristics.In recent decades, one of the most significant developments in migration in developing countries has been the increasing participation of women in migration flows, including their growing independent migration to developed countries. Women represent a significant portion of human capital in these communities, so their involuntary migration can have negative impacts on the development process. It is thus crucial to identify and understand the underlying factors of women’s migration, which can inform appropriate policies to address the issue. The present study used experimental data from 28 developing countries and the generalized method of moments (GMM) to examine the interactive effect of globalization and entrepreneurship on women’s international migration during 2011–2020. The results indicated that improving women’s entrepreneurial conditions has a significantly negative impact on international migration, while increasing the level of education and poverty index can have a significantly positive impact. However, the social, political, and economic aspects of globalization moderate the negative effect of entrepreneurship on women’s international migration. In other words, with the reduction of barriers and geographical boundaries, women are more willing to engage in entrepreneurship and gain new job experiences in a different country. Moreover, improving the index of gender equality and individual freedoms in the country can have a significantly negative effect on the process of international migration of women. Policymakers can reduce migration by improving gender equality and individual freedoms, revising laws and regulations related to women’s business space, and supporting entrepreneurship.IntroductionIt is crucial to understand the gender complexities surrounding women’s international migration to maximize the benefits of migration for women— who constitute half of the migrant population—and to minimize its socio-economic costs for them, their families, and their countries of origin. This understanding can also help prevent negative consequences in immigration destinations. Women often migrate internationally to escape social restrictions or to improve their families’ living conditions and provide a better prospect for their children. However, excessive migration, especially among young women with high education and skills who are in their reproductive age, can have dangerous consequences, such as exacerbating the demographic crisis, destabilizing the family foundation, and reducing economic growth at the national level.The history of independent international migration of women, separate from men and families, only dates back to the last few decades. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the reasons behind this phenomenon requires consideration of the new and emerging variables affecting human society and women’s lives. One such variable is globalization, which eliminates geographical borders and allows for the free flow of ideas, goods, services, and capital.In addition to eliminating geographical borders, globalization has facilitated the movement of people and labor between different countries, which has also affected women’s international migration. In addition to eliminating geographical borders, globalization has facilitated the movement of people and labor between different countries, which has also affected women’s international migration. Furthermore, the growth of women’s economic participation and entrepreneurship has increased their material independence, which has influenced their international migration. Finally, increasing the degree of social, economic, and political globalization of countries by providing the ground for women’s entrepreneurship can also affect their international migration.The structural approach emphasizes that women’s migration is influenced by a variety of factors, each with varying degrees of effectiveness. Moreover, the economic, social, and political structures of the host society play a significant role in women’s decision-making regarding international migration. Women’s income and financial independence are crucial factors in their decision to migrate, which is directly influenced by women’s entrepreneurship. In fact, entrepreneurial power enables women to take advantage of opportunities in different parts of the world. Entrepreneurship is the basic driver of social health and wealth and a powerful engine of economic growth that promotes the necessity of innovation. Entrepreneurship is not only necessary to take advantage of new opportunities, improve productivity, and create employment but also to address some of the biggest challenges of society (Women’s Entrepreneurship Report, 2021). Innovative women entrepreneurs bring new solutions to the market with new sources of value that are not provided by competitors. International entrepreneurs outside their national borders also contribute to the global competitiveness of their country’s economy.Materials and MethodsThe study used multivariate regression analysis, a panel data approach, the generalized method of moments (GMM), and Stata software to estimate the interactive effect of globalization and entrepreneurship on women’s international migration. The statistical population of the study consisted of 28 developing countries used as the study sample. The model included the women’s international migration index as the dependent variable, while social, political, and economic globalization, women’s education, economic misery index, gender equality, and individual freedoms were considered as explanatory variables and effective factors of women’s migration.Results and DiscussionThe research model utilized in this study is a panel data type, which provides a more efficient estimation by limiting the problem of heterogeneity of variance, reducing collinearity between variables, and increasing the degree of freedom compared to cross-sectional data and time series (Baltaji, 2005). In addition, the present research model can be considered as dynamic according to De Brau (2019) and Sultana and Fatima (2017), where the dependent variable intercept appears as an explanatory variable on the right side of the equation. The mathematical expression of the model is as follows: The dependent variable of the model is International Migration of Women (MWit), and the explanatory variables include social (SGit), political (PGit), and economic (EGit) globalization, Women’s Entrepreneurship (WENTit), Women’s Education (WEDUit), Economic Misery index (EMit), Gender Equality (GEit), and Personal Freedoms (PFit).This research used a dynamic panel data model in which the dependent variable appears as an explanatory variable with an interval on the right side, a correlation is created between the disturbance component and the mentioned variable, and the estimation results are skewed. Therefore, the GMM was used to estimate the variables. This method does not require detailed information on the distribution of disturbance sentences, based on the assumption that the disturbance sentences in equations with a set of instrumental variables are not correlated. Two tests were conducted to ensure the suitability of GMM for model estimation. The Sargan test was used to test the validity of instrumental variables. A Sargan statistical probability value greater than 5% indicates the non-correlation of the instruments with the disturbance components, and hence, the instruments used in the estimation are valid. Second, the first-order AR(1) and second-order AR(2) residual correlation tests were employed. The results indicated that there is first-order serial correlation in all cases of estimation of disturbance sentences, but there is not second-order serial correlation or clear distortion. Table 1. Estimation results of the research modelSecond StateFirst StateDependent variable: International migration of woment StatisticCoefficientt StatisticCoefficientExplanatory Variables▼6/0060/1876/0430/192LnIMW (-1)------3/4610/158LnSG------2/4120/035LnPG------3/9560/163LnEG-------4/208-0/179LnWENT3/7180/102------LnSG*WENT2/2560/061------LnPG*WENT3/4800/147------LnEG*WENT3/1140/2243/1650/231LnWEDU2/0170/0612/0260/058LnEM-5/512-0/346-5/387-0/351LnGE-4/968-0/186-4/914-0/190LnPF0/6126/1750/6086/03Sargan test statistic0/0000/0530/0000/057AR(1)0/7030/310/6910/30AR(2)228228Number of obs88Number of group2828Obs per groupConclusionAs economic, social, and political globalization increased in selected countries, so did the migration of women. The dissolution of geographical borders, the inability of developing economies to compete with developed counterparts, the disappearance of subcultures, and the familiarity of women with the culture and language of the destination countries all contributed to the increase in women’s international migration. Moreover, extroversion in foreign policy and the conclusion of understandings and bilateral/multilateral agreements of regional and international organizations for regular, easy, quick, and low-cost legal migration procedures also play a role in this context. The increasing trend of migration of skilled and expert women from developing countries to developed countries often results in improved employment opportunities, greater material benefits, and higher social status for these women.The establishment of entrepreneurship as a viable career path for women, along with equal business opportunities as men, and the ability to implement women’s creative plans and ideas in developing countries, could lead to their strong presence as valuable members of society. This, in turn, would strengthen women’s self-confidence and motivation to migrate, while also reducing the push factors for emigration.Gender equality in the home country can increase women’s hope of achieving a better life and reduce their desire to migrate abroad. In addition, individual freedoms in the home country can strengthen women’s desire to stay and work towards achieving greater freedom and a more liberal culture that aligns with their desires and aspirations. Improving the educational system, such as a one percent increase in enrollment in the third middle school, is an important factor in promoting social mobility for women since it provides opportunities for the development of individual talents, higher income, better social status, and improved living conditions, which can encourage women to migrate. Other factors leading to an increase in women’s migration include the decline in economic performance, economic difficulties, and a rise in the misery index in the home country, along with the expectation of a better situation in destination countries.The interactive effect of globalization and entrepreneurial environment on women’s international migration in the selected countries was found to be significantly positive. However, the lack of positive and constructive effects of social, political, and economic globalization on women’s entrepreneurship has moderated the reducing effect of entrepreneurship on international migration. Globalization has actually made it more likely for women entrepreneurs to seek business opportunities abroad, thus increasing their migration.
